02582nas a2200265 4500008004100000245010000041210006900141260001200210300000900222490000700231520176600238653001702004653001002021653002302031653001702054653002302071653001902094100002602113700001702139700002102156700002502177700001802202700001702220856007902237 2012 eng d00aFenestration of Today and Tomorrow: A State-of-the-Art Review and Future Research Opportunities0 aFenestration of Today and Tomorrow A StateoftheArt Review and Fu c01/2012 a1-280 v963 a

Fenestration of today is continuously being developed into the fenestration of tomorrow, hence offering a steadily increase of daylight and solar energy utilization and control, and at the same time providing a necessary climate screen with a satisfactory thermal comfort. Within this work a state of the art market review of the best performing fenestration products has been carried out, along with an overview of possible future research opportunities for the fenestration industry. The focus of the market review was low thermal transmittance (U-value). The lowest centre of glass Ug-values found was 0.28 W/(m2K) and 0.30 W/(m2K), which was from a suspended coating glazing product and an aerogel glazing product, respectively. However, the majority of high performance products found were triple glazed. The lowest frame U-value was 0.61 W/(m2K). Vacuum glazing, smart windows, solar cell glazing, window frames, self cleaning glazing, low-emissivity coatings and spacers were also reviewed, thus also representing possibilities for controlling and harvesting the solar radiation energy. Currently, vacuum glazing, new spacer materials and solutions, electrochromic windows and aerogel glazing seem to have the largest potential for improving the thermal performance and daylight and solar properties in fenestration products. Aerogel glazing has the lowest potential U-values, ~ 0.1 W/(m2K), but requires further work to improve the visible transmittance. Electrochromic vaccum glazing and evacuated aerogel glazing are two vacuum related solutions which have a large potential. There may also be opportunities for completely new material innovations which could revolutionize the fenestration industry.

10aFenestration10aLow-e10aMultilayer glazing10aSmart window10aSolar cell glazing10aVacuum glazing1 aJelle, Bjørn, Petter1 aHynd, Andrew1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aGoudey, Howdy1 aHart, Robert uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/fenestration-today-and-tomorrow-state02202nas a2200253 4500008004100000245009000041210006900131260001200200300001400212490000700226520141000233653001701643653002701660653002401687653002601711653001301737653001801750100002101768700002201789700002501811700002601836700001801862856006801880 2011 eng d00aKey Elements of and Materials Performance Targets for Highly Insulating Window Frames0 aKey Elements of and Materials Performance Targets for Highly Ins c10/2011 a2583-25940 v433 a

The thermal performance of windows is important for energy efficient buildings. Windows typically account for about 30–50 percent of the transmission losses though the building envelope, even if their area fraction of the envelope is far less. The reason for this can be found by comparing the thermal transmittance (U-factor) of windows to the U-factor of their opaque counterparts (wall, roof and floor constructions). In well insulated buildings the U-factor of walls, roofs and floors can be between 0.1 and 0.2 W/(m2 K). The best windows have U-factors of about 0.7–1.0. It is therefore obvious that the U-factor of windows needs to be reduced, even though looking at the whole energy balance for windows (i.e., solar gains minus transmission losses) makes the picture more complex.

In high performance windows the frame design and material use are of utmost importance, as the frame performance is usually the limiting factor for reducing the total window U-factor further. This paper describes simulation studies analyzing the effects on frame and edge-of-glass U-factors of different surface emissivities as well as frame material and spacer conductivities. The goal of this work is to define material research targets for window frame components that will result in better frame thermal performance than is exhibited by the best products available on the market today.

10aFenestration10aheat transfer modeling10athermal performance10athermal transmittance10au-factor10awindow frames1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aGrynning, Steinar1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aJelle, Bjørn, Petter1 aGoudey, Howdy uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/key-elements-and-materials02589nas a2200289 4500008004100000245010600041210006900147260003400216520165800250653001701908653001701925653001701942653002701959653001201986653002801998653002602026653001202052653001802064100002102082700001602103700002502119700001802144700002202162700002102184700002602205856006802231 2010 eng d00aExperimental and Numerical Examination of the Thermal Transmittance of High Performance Window Frames0 aExperimental and Numerical Examination of the Thermal Transmitta aClearwater Beach, FLc09/20103 a

While window frames typically represent 20-30% of the overall window area, their impact on the total window heat transfer rates may be much larger. This effect is even greater in low-conductance (highly insulating) windows which incorporate very low conductance glazings. Developing low-conductance window frames requires accurate simulation tools for product research and development.

The Passivhaus Institute in Germany states that windows (glazing and frames, combined) should have U-values not exceeding 0.80 W/(m2 K). This has created a niche market for highly insulating frames, with frame U-values typically around 0.7-1.0 W/(m2 K). The U-values reported are often based on numerical simulations according to international simulation standards. It is prudent to check the accuracy of these calculation standards, especially for high performance products before more manufacturers begin to use them to improve other product offerings.

In this paper the thermal transmittance of five highly insulating window frames (three wooden frames, one aluminum frame and one PVC frame), found from numerical simulations and experiments, are compared. Hot box calorimeter results are compared with numerical simulations according to ISO 10077-2 and ISO 15099. In addition CFD simulations have been carried out, in order to use the most accurate tool available to investigate the convection and radiation effects inside the frame cavities.

Our results show that available tools commonly used to evaluate window performance, based on ISO standards, give good overall agreement, but specific areas need improvement.

10aexperimental10aFenestration10aframe cavity10aheat transfer modeling10ahot box10ainternational standards10athermal transmittance10aU-value10awindow frames1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aTalev, Goce1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aGoudey, Howdy1 aKohler, Christian1 aUvsløkk, Sivert1 aJelle, Bjørn, Petter uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/experimental-and-numerical02372nas a2200181 4500008004100000050001500041245012000056210006900176300001200245490000700257520173300264100002101997700002502018700002602043700002402069700002202093856007502115 2008 eng d aLBNL-1022E00aDeveloping Low-Conductance Window Frames: Capabilities and Limitations of Current Window Heat Transfer Design Tools0 aDeveloping LowConductance Window Frames Capabilities and Limitat a131-1530 v323 a

While window frames typically represent 20-30% of the overall window area, their impact on the total window heat transfer rates may be much larger. This effect is even greater in low-conductance (highly insulating) windows which incorporate very low conductance glazings. Developing low-conductance window frames requires accurate simulation tools for product research and development. Based on a literature review and an evaluation of current methods of modeling heat transfer through window frames, we conclude that current procedures specified in ISO standards are not sufficiently adequate for accurately evaluating heat transfer through the low-conductance frames.

We conclude that the near-term priorities for improving the modeling of heat transfer through low-conductance frames are:

  1. Add 2-D view-factor radiation to standard modeling and examine the current practice of averaging surface emissivity based on area weighting and the process of making an equivalent rectangular frame cavity.
  2. Assess 3-D radiation effects in frame cavities and develop recommendation for inclusion into the design fenestration tools.
  3. Assess existing correlations for convection in vertical cavities using CFD.
  4. Study 2-D and 3-D natural convection heat transfer in frame cavities for cavities that are proven to be deficient from item 3 above. Recommend improved correlations or full CFD modeling into ISO standards and design fenestration tools, if appropriate.
  5. Study 3 D hardware short-circuits and propose methods to ensure that these effects are incorporated into ratings.
  6. Study the heat transfer effects of ventilated frame cavities and propose updated correlations.
1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aJelle, Bjørn, Petter1 aCurcija, Dragan, C.1 aKohler, Christian uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/developing-low-conductance-window03102nas a2200229 4500008004100000020002200041245008200063210006900145260004400214520234700258653001502605653001502620653002602635653001202661653001702673653001202690100002102702700002602723700002502749700002202774856007602796 2007 eng d a978-82-536-0970-600aState-of-the-Art Highly Insulating Window Frames - Research and Market Review0 aStateoftheArt Highly Insulating Window Frames Research and Marke aOlsobINTEF Building and Infrastructure3 a

This document reports the findings of a market and research review related to state-of-the-art highly insulating window frames. The market review focuses on window frames that satisfy the Passivhaus requirements (window U-value less or equal to 0.8 W/m2K), while other examples are also given in order to show the variety of materials and solutions that may be used for constructing window frames with a low thermal transmittance (U-value). The market search shows that several combinations of materials are used in order to obtain window frames with a low U-value. The most common insulating material seems to be Polyurethane (PUR), which is used together with most of the common structural materials such as wood, aluminum, and PVC.

The frame research review also shows examples of window frames developed in order to increase the energy efficiency of the frames and the glazings which the frames are to be used together with. The authors find that two main tracks are used in searching for better solutions. The first one is to minimize the heat losses through the frame itself. The result is that conductive materials are replaced by highly thermal insulating materials and air cavities. The other option is to reduce the window frame area to a minimum, which is done by focusing on the net energy gain by the entire window (frame, spacer and glazing). Literature shows that a window with a higher U-value may give a net energy gain to a building that is higher than a window with a smaller U-value. The net energy gain is calculated by subtracting the transmission losses through the window from the solar energy passing through the windows. The net energy gain depends on frame versus glazing area, solar factor, solar irradiance, calculation period and U-value.

The frame research review also discusses heat transfer modeling issues related to window frames. Thermal performance increasing measures, surface modeling, and frame cavity modeling are among the topics discussed. The review shows that the current knowledge gives the basis for improving the calculation procedures in the calculation standards. At the same time it is room for improvement within some areas, e.g. to fully understand the natural convection effects inside irregular vertical frame cavities (jambs) and ventilated frame cavities.

10aenergy use10aPassivhaus10athermal transmittance10aU-value10awindow frame10awindows1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aJelle, Bjørn, Petter1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aKohler, Christian uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/state-art-highly-insulating-window03235nas a2200145 4500008004100000245014400041210006900185260002400254520264600278100002102924700002202945700002002967700002502987856007703012 2007 eng d00aTwo-Dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics and Conduction Simulations of Heat Transfer in Horizontal Window Frames with Internal Cavities0 aTwoDimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics and Conduction Simul aDallas, TXc01/20073 a

This paper assesses the accuracy of the simplified frame cavity conduction/convection and radiation models presented in ISO 15099 and used in software for rating and labeling window products. Temperatures and U-factors for typical horizontal window frames with internal cavities are compared; results from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations with detailed radiation modeling are used as a reference.

Four different frames were studied. Two were made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and two of aluminum. For each frame, six different simulations were performed, two with a CFD code and four with a building-component thermal-simulation tool using the Finite Element Method (FEM). This FEM tool addresses convection using correlations from ISO 15099; it addressed radiation with either correlations from ISO 15099 or with a detailed, view-factor-based radiation model. Calculations were performed using the CFD code with and without fluid flow in the window frame cavities; the calculations without fluid flow were performed to verify that the CFD code and the building-component thermal-simulation tool produced consistent results. With the FEM-code, the practice of subdividing small frame cavities was examined, in some cases not subdividing, in some cases subdividing cavities with interconnections smaller than five millimeters (mm) (ISO 15099) and in some cases subdividing cavities with interconnections smaller than seven mm (a breakpoint that has been suggested in other studies). For the various frames, the calculated U-factors were found to be quite comparable (the maximum difference between the reference CFD simulation and the other simulations was found to be 13.2 percent). A maximum difference of 8.5 percent was found between the CFD simulation and the FEM simulation using ISO 15099 procedures. The ISO 15099 correlation works best for frames with high U-factors. For more efficient frames, the relative differences among various simulations are larger.

Temperature was also compared, at selected locations on the frames. Small differences was found in the results from model to model.

Finally, the effectiveness of the ISO cavity radiation algorithms was examined by comparing results from these algorithms to detailed radiation calculations (from both programs). Our results suggest that improvements in cavity heat transfer calculations can be obtained by using detailed radiation modeling (i.e. view-factor or ray-tracing models), and that incorporation of these strategies may be more important for improving the accuracy of results than the use of CFD modeling for horizontal cavities.

1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aKohler, Christian1 aDalehaug, Arvid1 aArasteh, Dariush, K. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/two-dimensional-computational-fluid01965nas a2200169 4500008004100000050001500041245010300056210006900159260002500228490000800253520136800261100002101629700002501650700002201675700002401697856007401721 2005 eng d aLBNL-6125000aTwo-Dimension Conduction and CFD Simulations for Heat Transfer in Horizontal Window Frame Cavities0 aTwoDimension Conduction and CFD Simulations for Heat Transfer in aOrlando, FLc02/20050 v1113 a

Accurately analyzing heat transfer in window frames and glazings is important for developing and characterizing the performance of highly insulating window products. This paper uses computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling to assess the accuracy of the simplified frame cavity conduction/convection models presented in ISO 15099 and used in software for rating and labeling window products. Three representative complex cavity cross-section profiles with varying dimensions and aspect ratios are examined. The results presented support the ISO 15099 rule that complex cavities with small throats should be subdivided; however, our data suggest that cavities with throats smaller than 7 mm should be subdivided, in contrast to the ISO 15099 rule, which places the break point at 5 mm. The agreement between CFD modeling results and the results of the simplified models is moderate for the heat transfer rates through the cavities. The differences may be a result of the underlying ISO 15099 Nusselt number correlations being based on studies where cavity height/length aspect ratios were smaller than 0.5 and greater than 5 (with linear interpolation assumed in between). The results presented here are for horizontal frame members because convection in vertical jambs involves very different aspect ratios that require three-dimensional CFD simulations.

1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aKohler, Christian1 aCurcija, Dragan, C. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/two-dimension-conduction-and-cfd02348nas a2200157 4500008004100000050001500041245015700056210006900213260002500282520171200307100002102019700002202040700002502062700002402087856007902111 2003 eng d aLBNL-5250900aTwo-Dimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics and Conduction Simulations of Heat Transfer in Window Frames with Internal Cavities - Part 1: Cavities Only0 aTwoDimensional Computational Fluid Dynamics and Conduction Simul aOrlando, FLc02/20053 a

Accurately analyzing heat transfer in window frame cavities is essential for developing and characterizing the performance of highly insulating window products. Window frame thermal performance strongly influences overall product thermal performance because framing materials generally perform much more poorly than glazing materials. This paper uses Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) modeling to assess the accuracy of the simplified frame cavity conduction/convection models presented in ISO 15099 and used in software for rating and labeling window products. (We do not address radiation heat-transfer effects.) We examine three representative complex cavity cross-section profiles with varying dimensions and aspect ratios. Our results support the ISO 15099 rule that complex cavities with small throats should be subdivided; however, our data suggest that cavities with throats smaller than seven millimeters (mm) should be subdivided, in contrast to the ISO 15099 rule, which places the break point at five mm. The agreement between CFD modeling results and the results of the simplified models is moderate. The differences in results may be a result of the underlying ISO correlations being based on studies where cavity height/length (H/L) aspect ratios were smaller than 0.5 and greater than five (with linear interpolation assumed in between). The results presented here are for horizontal frame members because convection in vertical jambs involves very different aspect ratios that require three-dimensional CFD simulations. Ongoing work focuses on quantifying the exact effect on window thermal performance indicators of using the ISO 15099 approximations in typical real window frames.

1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aKohler, Christian1 aArasteh, Dariush, K.1 aCurcija, Dragan, C. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/two-dimensional-computational-fluid-002515nas a2200145 4500008004100000245008900041210006900130260003000199490001600229520198000245100002102225700002402246700002502270856007402295 2000 eng d00aNatural Convection Effects in Three-Dimensional Window Frames with Internal Cavities0 aNatural Convection Effects in ThreeDimensional Window Frames wit aCincinnati, Ohioc06/20010 v107, Part 23 a

This paper studies three-dimensional natural convection effects in window frames with internal cavities. Infrared (IR) thermography experiments, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations, and calculations with traditional software for simulating two-dimensional heat conduction were conducted. The IR thermography experiments mapped surface temperatures during steady-state thermal tests between ambi-ent thermal chambers set at 0 deg. C and 20 deg. C. Using anon-contact infrared scanning radiometer and an external referencing technique, we were able to obtain surface temperature maps with a resolution of 0.1 deg. C and 3 mm and an estimated uncertainty of 0.5 deg. C and +/-3 mm. The conjugate CFD simulations modeled the enclosed air cavities, frame section walls, and foam board surround panel. With the two-dimensional heat conduction simulation software, weusedcorrelations to model heat transfer in the air cavities. For both the CFD simulations and the conduction simulation software, boundary conditions at the external air/solid interface were modeled using constant surface heat-transfer coefficients with fixed ambient air temperatures.

Different cases were studied, including simple, four-sided frame sections (with one open internal cavity), simple vertical sections with a single internal cavity, and horizontal sections with a single internal cavity. The sections tested in the Infrared Thermography Laboratory (IR lab) were made of PVC. Both PVC and thermally broken aluminum sections were modeled. Based on the current investigations, it appears that the thermal transmittance or U-factor of a four-sided section can be found by calculating the average of the thermal transmittance of the respective single horizontal and vertical sections. In addition, we conclude that two-dimensional heat transfer simulation software agrees well with CFD simulations if the natural convection correlations used for the internal cavities are correct.

1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aGriffith, Brent, T.1 aArasteh, Dariush, K. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/natural-convection-effects-three02434nas a2200169 4500008004100000050001500041245013900056210006900195260003000264300001200294490000800306520181100314100002102125700002402146700002502170856006902195 2000 eng d aLBNL-4682500aThree-Dimensional Conjugate Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations of Internal Window Frame Cavities Validated Using IR Thermography0 aThreeDimensional Conjugate Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulati aCincinnati, Ohioc06/2001 a538-5490 v1073 a

This paper studies the effectiveness of one commercial computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program for simulating combined natural convection and heat transfer in three dimensions for air-filled cavities similar to those found in the extruded frame sections of windows. The accuracy of the conjugate CFD simulations is evaluated by comparing results for surface temperature on the warm side of the specimens to results from experiments that use infrared (IR) thermography to map surface temperatures during steady-state thermal tests between ambient thermal chambers set at 0 °C and 20 °C. Validations using surface temperatures have been used in previous studies of two-dimensional simulations of glazing cavities with generally good results. Using the techniques presented and a noncontact infrared scanning radiometer we obtained surface temperature maps with a resolution of 0.1 °C and 3 mm and an estimated uncertainty of +/-0.5 °C and +/-3mm. Simulation results are compared to temperature line and contour plots for the warm side of the specimen. Six different cases were studied, including a simple square section in a single vertical cavity and two four-sided frame cavities as well as more complex H- and U-shaped sections. The conjugate CFD simulations modeled the enclosed air cavities, the frame section walls, and the foam board surround panel. Boundary conditions at the indoor and outdoor air/solid interface were modeled using constant surface heat-transfer coefficients with fixed ambient-air temperatures. In general, there was good agreement between the simulations and experiments, although the accuracy of the simulations is not explicitly quantified. We conclude that such simulations are useful for future evaluations of natural convection heat transfer in frame cavities.

1 aGustavsen, Arlid1 aGriffith, Brent, T.1 aArasteh, Dariush, K. uhttps://facades.lbl.gov/publications/three-dimensional-conjugate